Historical Earthquakes in Nepal: Overview

Nepal, located in the central part of the Himalayan range, is one of the most seismically active regions in the world. The high seismicity of this region stems from the continuous subduction of the Indian tectonic plate beneath the Eurasian plate. This tectonic activity results in accumulated stress along the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT), periodically released in the form of devastating earthquakes (Bilham, 2004). This article outlines notable historical earthquakes that have impacted Nepal over the centuries.

1255 A.D. / 1310 B.S. (7.8)

The earliest historically documented earthquake in Nepal occurred on June 7, 1255 A.D., during the reign of King Abhaya Malla, who was among the casualties. It is estimated to have had a magnitude of Mw ~7.8, devastating the Kathmandu Valley and reportedly killing one-third of its population (Dixit et al., 2013; Bilham, 2004). Historical chronicles like the Gopalraj Vamshavali describe widespread destruction of temples and palaces, with aftershocks lasting over two weeks. This event is often cited as the first evidence of great Himalayan earthquakes, linked to the Main Himalayan Thrust, highlighting the seismic vulnerability of Kathmandu’s densely populated basin with its soft lacustrine soil (Chaulagain et al., 2016).

1260 A.D. / 1316 B.S. (7.1)

The 1260 A.D. earthquake, striking during the reign of King Jayadev Malla, followed just five years after the catastrophic 1255 event and is estimated at Mw ~7.1. Though less documented, historical records suggest significant destruction of residential buildings and temples across the Kathmandu Valley, compounding the trauma of a population still recovering from earlier losses. The quake reportedly triggered widespread famine and epidemic outbreaks, reflecting the vulnerability of early urban settlements to cascading post-disaster crises (Dixit et al., 2013). Its occurrence so soon after the 1255 quake also raises questions about clustered seismic activity in the central Himalaya.

1408 A.D. / 1463 B.S. (8.2)

The 1408 A.D. earthquake, occurring during the reign of King Shyam Singh, is considered one of the most violent medieval seismic events in Nepal, with an estimated magnitude of Mw ~8.2 (Pandey et al., 1999). Historical chronicles describe the destruction of prominent structures, including the Machhindranath Temple, and note that the ground split open in several areas, leading to widespread landslides and subsidence. The extent of damage suggests a large rupture along the Main Himalayan Thrust, consistent with patterns of great earthquakes in central Nepal. The social and cultural toll was severe, though quantitative data remain sparse due to limited archival records (Dixit et al., 2013)

1681 A.D. / 1737 B.S. (8.0)

The 1681 A.D. earthquake, which struck during the rule of King Sri Niwas Malla, is estimated to have had a magnitude of Mw ~8.0 and caused widespread destruction throughout the Kathmandu Valley. Historical documents describe the collapse of numerous palaces and temples, though precise records of casualties and structural losses are limited.

1810 A.D. / 1866 B.S.

The 1810 A.D. earthquake, which occurred during the reign of King Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah, struck on August 28 and is one of the earliest events with regionally correlated records. Though its magnitude is uncertain, reports suggest at least 21 tremors were felt in a single day across Kathmandu Valley (Dixit et al., 2013). Damage was concentrated in eastern and central Nepal, with partial collapses of traditional brick and mud mortar buildings. Contemporary accounts cite public panic, temple cracks, and minor landslides, but relatively few fatalities were reported. The 1810 quake is often seen as a seismic precursor to the larger 1833 event and may have occurred along a related segment of the Main Himalayan Thrust.

1823 A.D. / 1880 B.S.

The 1823 A.D. earthquake, though less destructive than its predecessors, is notable for producing 17 felt tremors in Kathmandu Valley within a short span, suggesting a moderate but persistent seismic episode. Occurring during the final years of King Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah’s rule, the quake reportedly caused minor structural damage but no significant loss of life (Dixit et al., 2013). Its epicentral region is presumed to be central or eastern Nepal, though the absence of instrumental data limits precise localization. The 1823 event holds seismological importance as part of a clustering of mid-sized earthquakes that preceded the 1833 rupture, reflecting stress accumulation along the Main Himalayan Thrust.

1833 A.D. / 1890 B.S. (M_s 8.0)

The 1833 A.D. earthquake, occurring on August 26 (some records indicate August 28), was one of the most significant pre-instrumental seismic events in central Nepal, with an estimated surface wave magnitude of Ms 7.7–8.0 (Pandey et al., 1999). The mainshock struck around 6:00 p.m. local time, followed by a similarly strong tremor at 11:00 p.m., and more than 23 aftershocks throughout the night. The earthquake’s effects were felt over a wide area — from Gorakhpur in the west to Bijayapur in the east — but destruction was concentrated in the Kathmandu Valley, particularly in Bhaktapur and Thimi (Bilham, 2004; Dixit et al., 2013). Among the most prominent structures damaged were the Jagannath Temple, a 100-foot tall pagoda built only 35 years prior, and the original Dharahara Tower, which suffered severe cracks and partial collapse (Rana, 1935).

Although no official death toll was recorded, the impact was catastrophic: more than 18,000 homes were destroyed, with thousands rendered homeless. Interestingly, the death rate remained lower than in other comparable earthquakes, which experts attribute to the lightweight construction materials used at the time — such as timber-laced brick masonry — which performed better under lateral seismic loads (Chaulagain et al., 2016; Gautam & Rodrigues, 2018). The event is also significant from a tectonic perspective: it likely ruptured a portion of the Main Himalayan Thrust, but not its full length, suggesting incomplete stress release and foreshadowing the much larger 1934 and 2015 ruptures (Bilham, 2004).

1934 A.D. / 1990 B.S.(M_w 8.1)

The 1934 Nepal–Bihar earthquake, also known as the 1934 Great Earthquake, struck on January 15, 1934, at 2:24 p.m. NST, with a moment magnitude (Mw) of 8.1, making it one of the most devastating seismic events in Himalayan history. The epicenter was located in eastern Nepal, approximately 9.5 km south of Mount Everest, and the rupture extended across the Main Frontal Thrust, impacting large areas of Nepal and northern Bihar (Bilham, 2004). The shaking was so intense that liquefaction, ground fissures, and lateral spreading were reported throughout the Terai and Kathmandu Valley. In parts of Balaju and Sankhamul, the ground reportedly subsided by as much as 3 feet, and water and sand were ejected from cracks in the soil (Rana, 1935).

The human toll was immense: 8,519 people were killed — 4,296 in Kathmandu Valley alone — and more than 200,000 structures were damaged or destroyed. Iconic landmarks like the Dharahara Tower and Ghanta Ghar (Clock Tower) collapsed entirely, along with hundreds of temples and public buildings (Dixit et al., 2013; UNESCO, 2015). In Kathmandu Valley, 12,397 houses were completely destroyed, and an additional 43,000 were severely or moderately damaged. Infrastructure such as the Birgunj–Raxaul railway, ropeways, telegraph lines, and water systems was rendered non-functional (Chaulagain et al., 2016).

The aftermath of the 1934 earthquake revealed critical weaknesses in Nepal’s traditional building practices and highlighted the risks posed by unreinforced masonry and heavy roofs. Contemporary engineers, including Col. Brahma Shamsher Rana, documented the damage meticulously, laying early groundwork for seismic understanding in Nepal (Rana, 1935). While reconstruction was carried out swiftly by the Rana regime, no formal building code was introduced, leaving Nepal vulnerable to future disasters (Gautam & Rodrigues, 2018). The 1934 event is now considered a partial rupture of the central Himalayan seismic gap, a theory supported by modern paleoseismological studies.

Table: The Death Toll (Rana, 1935)

Summary	Male	Female	Total
The Valley	1952	2344	4296
Eastern Hills	1792	2182	3974
Western Hills	29	36	65
The Terai (East)	77	107	184
The Terai (West)	–	–	–
Total	3850	4669	8519

Table: The Material Loss (Rana, 1935)

Summary	No. of houses completely damaged	Much damaged	Less damaged	Total	Temples, Public shelters*
Kathmandu Valley	12397	25658	17684	55739	492
The Hills	64742	73253	1266	139261	–
The Terai	3754	5610	2884	12248	–
Grand Total	80893	104521	21834	207248	492

Source: The Great Earthquake in Nepal 1934 A.D. by Brahma Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana (Rana, 1935)

1980 A.D. / 2037 B.S. (M_s 6.5)

The 1980 Bajhang earthquake struck western Nepal on July 29, with a magnitude of Ms 6.5, and primarily affected the districts of Baitadi, Bajhang, and Darchula. It resulted in 125 deaths, over 248 injuries, and the destruction of more than 13,000 buildings, most of which were constructed with stone masonry and mud mortar (UNDP, 1981). The event exposed the seismic vulnerability of far-western Nepal, especially in rural areas with poor access to emergency infrastructure.

1988 A.D. / 2045 B.S. (M 6.9)

The August 21, 1988 earthquake, commonly referred to as the Udayapur earthquake, struck eastern Nepal at 4:54 a.m. NST with a moment magnitude of 6.9. The epicenter was located near Udayapur District, and the seismic waves impacted 22 districts in the eastern and central regions of the country, including urban areas of Kathmandu (Dixit et al., 2013).

Fatalities: 721
Injuries: 6,553
Private Buildings Damaged: 64,174
Public Buildings Damaged: 1,258
Estimated Economic Loss: NPR 5 billion (JICA, 1990)

The earthquake struck at a time when most people were at home, leading to significant human losses, particularly in unreinforced stone and mud buildings. Major structural failures were observed in non-engineered low-rise masonry houses, public schools, and traditional temples. Kathmandu, despite being some distance from the epicenter, experienced moderate shaking that further emphasized the need for retrofitting vulnerable structures (Chaulagain et al., 2016).

Importantly, this earthquake served as a turning point in Nepal’s seismic risk awareness. It led to the formation of the National Society for Earthquake Technology–Nepal (NSET) in 1993 and catalyzed the development of seismic design guidelines and risk reduction strategies (Dixit et al., 2013). Retrospective studies revealed poor construction quality, lack of seismic considerations in design, and inadequate material strength as key causes of damage (Rodrigues et al., 2018).

2011 A.D. / 2068 B.S. (M 6.9)

On September 18, 2011, a magnitude 6.9 earthquake struck near the India-Nepal border, with its epicenter located in the Sikkim region of northeastern India. Although the epicenter lay outside Nepal’s borders, the shaking had significant effects in eastern Nepal, especially in the Ilam, Taplejung, and Panchthar districts, and was felt as far as Kathmandu Valley (MOHA, 2011; Gautam et al., 2017).

Fatalities in Nepal: 6
Injuries: 30
Displaced Individuals: Over 12,300
Collapsed Buildings: 6,435
Moderately Damaged Buildings: 11,520
Minor Damages: 3,024

Two of the deaths occurred in Kathmandu Valley, and the others were reported in eastern mountainous districts due to building collapses and falling debris. The worst damage occurred in older stone and mud mortar houses, as well as poorly detailed reinforced concrete (RC) buildings with soft stories (Chaulagain et al., 2016).

This earthquake was a wake-up call for eastern Nepal, highlighting the growing exposure of remote communities to transboundary seismic hazards. Several school buildings and health facilities suffered structural damage, prompting renewed discussion about the safety of public infrastructure (Gautam et al., 2017). Though less destructive than other major events, it underscored gaps in preparedness, response coordination, and building code enforcement even in urban fringe areas.

2015 A.D. / 2072 B.S. (M_w 7.8)

The Gorkha Earthquake, which struck on April 25, 2015, at 11:56 a.m. NST, was the most catastrophic seismic disaster in Nepal in over eight decades. With a moment magnitude of 7.8, the earthquake ruptured approximately 150 km of the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT), with the epicenter located near Barpak Village in Gorkha District, about 80 km northwest of Kathmandu (Avouac et al., 2015). The mainshock was followed by more than 400 aftershocks, including a Mw 6.7 tremor on April 26 and a Mw 7.3 aftershock on May 12, centered in Dolakha (USGS, 2015).

Fatalities: 8,856
Injuries: Over 22,300
Affected Population: Over 8 million in 31 districts
Displaced: ~2.8 million people
Homes Destroyed/Damaged: ~800,000
Economic Loss: Estimated USD 7 billion (~33% of Nepal’s GDP) (NPC, 2015)

Structural and Infrastructural Damage
The earthquake caused extensive damage across 14 crisis-hit districts, including Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Lalitpur, Gorkha, Dhading, Sindhupalchok, Nuwakot, and Dolakha. More than 700,000 rural houses, primarily constructed from stone masonry with mud mortar, were destroyed. In urban areas, failures were widespread in reinforced concrete (RC) frame buildings, especially those with soft stories, irregular plans, and poor detailing (Chaulagain et al., 2016).

Cultural heritage sites were decimated: UNESCO World Heritage monuments in Kathmandu Durbar Square, Patan, Bhaktapur, and Swayambhunath were partially or completely destroyed. The iconic Dharahara Tower, which had previously collapsed in 1934 and was rebuilt, fell again, killing over 40 people trapped inside.

Technical and Engineering Insights
Researchers like Chaulagain et al. (2016) and Rodrigues et al. (2018) emphasized that the majority of RC buildings failed not due to material strength, but due to non-compliance with Nepal’s National Building Code (NBC 205), lack of lateral load design, and unregulated urban expansion. 

In addition, many lifeline systems — such as roads, hydropower projects (e.g., Trishuli and Upper Tamakoshi), and drinking water systems — sustained severe damage, crippling emergency response and recovery logistics.

Emergency Response and Recovery
Despite resource constraints, Nepal’s response was supported by rapid international mobilization. However, logistical bottlenecks, political instability, and inadequate pre-disaster planning delayed the distribution of relief materials and the start of reconstruction.

The government, in partnership with international donors, launched a Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) within six weeks. PDNA estimated the reconstruction cost at USD 6.7 billion, prompting the formation of the National Reconstruction Authority (NRA) in December 2015. The “Build Back Better” framework was adopted, focusing on resilience, safety, and local empowerment (NPC, 2015).

Scientific and Policy Impact
Seismologically, the Gorkha Earthquake partially ruptured the locked segment of the MHT, leaving the western portion of the fault unbroken and raising concern about future mega-earthquakes (Bollinger et al., 2016; Avouac et al., 2015). The event has since become a case study in seismic risk governance for developing nations. It spurred revisions to building codes, multi-hazard zoning, school retrofitting programs, and the digitization of structural inventories in urban municipalities.

 

Source: Revisiting Major Historical Earthquakes in Nepal: Overview of 1833, 1934, 1980, 1988, 2011, and 2015 Seismic Events.

A useful video explaining science behind devastating Nepal earthquake.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WO66hP2a7tI

Sources:

References:

 

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Bilham, R. (2004). Earthquakes in India and the Himalaya: Tectonics, geodesy and history. Annals of Geophysics, 47(2–3), 839–858.

Chaulagain, H., Gautam, D., & Rodrigues, H. (2018). Revisiting major historical earthquakes in Nepal: Overview of 1833, 1934, 1980, 1988, 2011, and 2015 seismic events. Impacts and insights of the Gorkha earthquake, 1-17.

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Mugnier, J.-L., Gajurel, A. P., Huyghe, P., Upreti, B. N., & Jouanne, F. (2011). Seismites in the Kathmandu Basin and seismic hazard in central Himalaya. Tectonophysics, 509(1–2), 33–49.

NPC. (2015). Nepal Earthquake 2015: Post Disaster Needs Assessment – Volume A: Key Findings. National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal.

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UNDP. (1981). Earthquake Damage Assessment Report: Far-Western Nepal Earthquake 1980. United Nations Development Programme.

UNESCO. (2015). Rapid Assessment of Damage to UNESCO World Heritage Sites after the Nepal Earthquake. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

USGS. (2015). Event Page: M 7.8 – Nepal Region. United States Geological Survey.